The Someshwara temple at Madiwala was built around 1247 AD. The Someshwara Temple at Halasuru, one of the oldest in the city. While the main deity is Nandi, other gods like Brahma and Vishnu are also worshiped here. It was later renovated by Kempegowda who built the Rajagopura and constructed walls around the temple.

This is a list of temples in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu, which is famed for Tamil architecture styled Hindu temples, culture, and tradition and commonly known as the Land of Temples.[1] Tamil Nadu has more temples than any other states of India. Tamil Nadu is home to more than 400,000 Hindu temples and is aptly called "the land of temples" by the media. Many are at least 800 years old and are found scattered all over the state. The rulers of various dynasties constructed these temples over centuries. Vimanas (storeys) and Gopuram (towering gateways to the temple complex) best characterize the temples of Tamil Nadu.[1]

As per the Tamil Nadu Hindu Endowments Board, there are 390,615 temples. Most of the largest Hindu temples reside here.[2] Studded with complex architecture, variety of sculptures, and rich inscriptions, the temples remain the very essence of the culture and heritage of Tamil land,[3] with historical records dating back to at least 3,000 years. Temples are not only considered as a place for spirituality but also shows the way of living, art, culture, knowledge, and sacrifice of people's life to protect the temples from invaders.[4] Many temples contain inscriptions which explain the democratic rule of Kings also which inspired the current voting system of India. The Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Uthiramerur in Uthiramerur, a village in the South Indian state of Tamil Nadu, is dedicated to the Hindu God Maha Vishnu. The inscriptions of the temple indicate that the villagers requested the rulers to allow them to choose their representatives. Parantaka Chola readily acceded to their demand and instituted the Kudavolai system (ballot) of democratically electing the village representatives. The eligibility of the candidates was prescribed with minimum age, educational qualifications of the Vedas and property. There were strictures for the candidates should have built their house on their own property, should not be part of any other committee and be between 35 and 70 years of age. The voters had the right to call back their candidate for failing their duties. The inscriptions also specified strict punishments. The institution was dismembered along with the ending of the Chola regime during the 13th century. Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of India was inspired by the system after paying a visit to the temple and insisted on improving Panchayat Raj, India's system of local bodies in villages.[5]

Rajarajeswaram, also known as Brihadeshwara temple built by Chola emperor Rajaraja-I at Thanjavur dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple dedicated to Maha Vishnu located in Srirangam, Tamil Nadu, India has the largest temple compound in India and one of the largest religious complexes in the world.[8][9] Some of these structures have been renovated, expanded and rebuilt over the centuries as a living temple. The latest addition is the outer tower that is approximately 73 metres (240 ft) tall, completed in 1987.[10]Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple is often listed as the largest functioning Hindu temple in the world, even though Angkor Wat which is still larger being the largest existing temple as it is not in use.[11][12] The temple is an active Hindu house of worship and follows the Tenkalai tradition of Sri Vaishnavism. The temple is one of the oldest temples in the world, which consists of inscriptions dating around 100 BCE.[13] Hence, "making it one of the oldest surviving active temple complexes in the world".[citation needed] The Deity finds a mention in the great Sanskrit epic Ramayana and hence is dated around 800 to 400 BCE.[14][15] and is said to be worshipped by the ancestors of Rama. The temple finds mention in the Sangam literature[16] like the epic Silapadikaram (book 11, lines 35–40):[citation needed] and Akana???u. The annual 21-day festival conducted during the Tamil month of Margali (December–January) attracts 1 million visitors. The temple complex has been nominated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and is in UNESCO's tentative list.[8]

Other temples like Madurai Kallalagar temple which has high ‘Gopuram’ towers ornamented with colourful figures, and the Meenakshi Temple with high colourful towers and great long halls are notable. On Pamban Island, Ramanathaswamy Temple is a pilgrimage site. The town of Kanyakumari, at India's southernmost tip, is the site of ritual sunrises.[17]

The state also abounds with temple tanks. The state has 2,359 temple tanks located in 1,586 temples. The government has identified 1,068 tanks for renovation.[18] People from all over the world visit the Temples of Tamil Nadu and it is the major Tourist attraction in India.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Temples of Ganesha

[edit]

Temples of Murugan

[edit]

The Arupadai Veedu

[edit]

Other major Murugan temples

[edit]

• Six Abodes of Murugan, the six sacred mountains of Tamil Nadu.

[59]

Temples of Vishnu

[edit]

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• Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam
• Andal Temple, Srivilliputtur
• Namagiri Thayar Sametha Narasimhaswamy perumal temple, Namakkal
• Gunaseelam Prasana Venkatachalapathy Perumal Temple
• Chakrapani Temple, Kumbakonam
• Sarangapani temple, Kumbakonam
• Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
• Parthasarathy Temple, Triplicane
• Bhu Varaha Swamy temple
• Adi Srinivasa perumal temple
• Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
• Ashtabujakaram
• Adikesava Perumal Temple, Kanyakumari
• Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple
• Rajagopalaswamy Temple, Mannargudi
• Ulagalantha Perumal Temple, Tirukoyilur
• Mudikondan Kothandaramar Temple
• Thirupullabhoothangudi Temple
• Kola Valvill Ramar Temple, Tiruvelliyangudi
• Vijayaraghava Perumal temple
• Kattu Narasimhaperumal Temple, Srirangam
• Sundaravarada Perumal temple
• Ramaswamy Temple, Kumbakonam
• Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Uthiramerur
• Tiruparamechura Vinnagaram - Sri Vaikunda Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
• Tirupavalavannam - Sri Pavala Vanar Temple, Kanchipuram
• Tirupaadagam - Sri Pandava Thoodar Temple, Kanchipuram
• Tirunilaaththingalthundam - Sri Nilathingal Thundathan Perumal Temple,Kanchipuram
• Tirupputkuzhi - Sri Vijaya Raghava Perumal Temple, Kanchipuram
• Tirivikrama Perumal Temple
• Appakkudathaan Perumal Temple
• Thanjai Mamani Koil, Thanjavur
• Parimala Ranganatha Perumal temple
• Azhagiya Manavala Perumal Temple
• Sundararaja Perumal temple
• Srinivasa Perumal Temple, Tirukulandhai
• Varadaraja Perumal Temple, Shoolagiri
• Vedanarayana perumal temple, Thirunarayanapuram
• Sri Venkatesa Perumal Temple (Melathiruppathi) – Mondipalayam
• Ranganatha Temple, Thiruneermalai
• Veeraraghava Swamy Temple, Tiruvallur
• Sri Kalyana Ramaswamy temple
• Loganatha Perumal Temple
• Neelamegha Perumal temple
• Soundararajaperumal temple, Nagapattinam
• Vanamamalai Perumal temple
• Ranganathaswamy temple, Karamadai, Coimbatore
• Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Puducherry
• Sri Yoga Rama Temple, Nedungunam Chettupattu
• Yoga Narasimhaswamy Temple Sholingur
• Devanathaswamy temple, Thiruvanthipuram
• Oppiliappan temple
• Bhaktavatsala Perumal temple, Tirukannamangai
• Krishnapuram Venkatachalapathy temple
• Soundararajaperumal temple, Thadikombu
• Santana Srinivasa Temple at Mogappair
• Saranatha Perumal Temple
• Nithyakalyana Perumal temple at Tiruvidanthai, Chennai
• Srivaikuntanathan Perumal temple
• Abaya Hastha Swayambu Sri Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple, Agaram Village, Hosur
• Adhirangam Ranganathaswamy temple
• Adikesava Perumal temple, Mylapore
• Adikesava Perumal Temple, Paramandur
• Adikesava Perumal temple, Sriperumpudur
• Andalukkum Aiyan Temple
• Arulmigu Prasanna Venkatesa Perumal Temple
• Sri Kodandaramaswamy temple, Ayoyhyapatinam, Salem
• Betrayaswamy temple
• Eri-Katha Ramar Temple
• Jakath Rakshaka Perumal temple, Thirukkoodaloor
• Jagannatha Perumal temple
• Adi Jagannatha Perumal Temple
• Varadharajaperumal temple, Thirubuvanai
• Chenraya Perumal Temple
• Senji Singavaram Ranganatha Temple
• Gingee Venkataramana Temple
• Ranganatha Perumal Temple at Erode Fort
• Magudeswarar Temple, Kodumudi, Erode
• Kongu Tirupati at Erode
• Sri Viswaroopha Lakshmi Nrusimha Temple at Kattavakkam, Kancheepuram District, Near Thenneri
• The LakshmiNarasimhar Temple at Tindivanam
• The Lakshmi Narayan Temple at Pulikkundram near Thirukazhukundram
• The Kesavaperumal Temple at Chennai
• The Lakshmi Narasimhar Temple at Chennai
• Sri Mayakoothar Devasthanams, Perungulam, Tuticorin [Thoothukudi]
• Arulmegu sattur perumal swamy temple, Solavampalayam, Kinathukadavu, Pollachi, Coimbatore
• Sri Adivaraha Temple Kallidaikurichi Tamlinadu
• Sri Veeraragava perumal Temple, Dharapuram, Tirupur
• Adi Narayana Perumal Temple, Pariyur, Gobichettipalayam
• Kalyana venkatramanaswamy Temple, Thannthondri Malai, Karur
• Shree Abayapradhana Ranganathar Temple, Karur
• Vasantha perumal Temple, Kadavur, Karur
• Neelameegha perumal Temple, Kulithalai, Karur
• Kripasamudra Perumal (Arulmakadal) Temple at Mayavaram
• Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Nainamalai
• Narasimha Temple at Tindivanam
• Yoga Narasimha Temple at Velachery, Chennai
• Sri Srinivaasa Perumal, Thirumaleeswarar Temple, Arakonam
• Sri Lakshmi Narayanan Kovil, Sathyamangalam
• Pulikundram Sri Lakshmi Narayana Temple, Pulikkundram, Mahabalipuram, Tirukalukundram
• Lakshmi Narasimha Swamy Temple, Vellore
• Ranganathaswamy Temple, Bethur
• Mannarakrishna temple, Ramiyananhalli
• Seetha devi sametha Kodandaramaswamy temple, Ramiyanahalli

See also

[edit]

• Divyadesam
• Abhimana Kshethram
• Pancharanga Kshetrams
• Nava Tirupati Kshethrams
• Pancha Kshethram
• Pancha Ramachandra Kshethram

Temples of Shiva

[edit]

Main article: Shiva Temples of Tamil Nadu

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• Perur Pateeswarar Temple, Coimbatore
• Sarva Sitheshwarar Shiva temple, Madipakkam,Chennai
• Agatheeshwarar temple, Ponneri.
• Thirumaleeswarar Temple, Thirumathalampakkam, Arakonam Tk, Vellore Dt.
• Shivan temple, Thiru kundachappai village, Ooty, The Nilgiris Dt.
• Chenchadainathar Karunakadakshi Temple, Thirumal Ugandan kotai ( TM Kotai ), Ramanathapuram dist, Tamil Nadu, India
• Arulmigu Amarasundreashwarar Temple, Singalandapuram, Thuraiyur taluk, Tiruchirappalli district
• Surayanarayanar Temple, Gnairu, Ponneri
• Madurai Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple, Madurai
• Nellaiappar Temple, Tirunelveli
• Kasivisavanathar Gnanaambaigai Temple, Uthamapalayam
• Sankaranayinarkoil or Sankaranaraya swamy temple, Sankarankovil
• Chintamani nathar temple, vasudevanallur
• Brihadeeswarar Temple at Thanjavur
• Vaitheeshwaran Temple near Mayuram
• Jalakandeswarar Temple, inside the Vellore Fort, Vellore
• Kapaleeshwarar Temple at Mylapore, Chennai
• Dandeeswarar Koil, Velachery, Chennai
• Ramanathaswamy Temple at Rameshwaram
• Jambukeswarar Temple, Thiruvanaikaval at Tirucharapalli
• Arunachaleshwarar Temple at Thiruvannamalai
• Thillai Nataraja Temple at Chidambaram
• Vedapureeswarar Temple at Pondicherry
• Thyagaraja Temple at Thiruvarur
• Ekambaranathar Temple(Kachi Egambam) at Kancheepuram
• Thirumagaraleeswarar Temple at Kancheepuram
• Kailasanathar Temple, Kanchipuram
• Karchapeswarar Temple, Kanchipuram
• Vazhakarutheeswarar Temple, Kanchipuram
• Sathyanatheswarar Temple ( Kachi Nerikkaaraikkadu), Kanchipuram
• Metraleeswar Temple(Kachi Metrali), Kanchipuram
• Iravatanesvara Temple, Kanchipuram
• Muktheeswarar Temple, Kanchipuram
• Ona Kantheeswarar Temple (Onakanthan Thali)
• Anekadhangavadeswarar Temple (Kachi Anekatangapadam)
• Kalyana Pasupatheeswarar Temple (Thiru Aanilai), Karur
• Kalyanasundareswarar Temple, Thirumanancheri, Mayiladuthurai
• Magudeeswarar Temple, Kodumudi, Erode
• Virdhgiriswarar Temple at Vriddhachalam
• Sree Pasupatheeswarar Temple, Pandanainallur
• Thenupuriswarar Temple at Pattiswaram, Kumbakonam
• Nageeswarar Temple, Kumbakonam
• Amarapaneeswarar Temple at Pariyur, Gobichettipalayam
• Arudra Kabaleeswarar Temple at Erode
• Vigirtheeswarar Temple, Venjamangudalur, Karur
• Rathinagireeshwarar Temple, Iyermalai, Karur
• Sangameswarar Temple at Bhavani
• Natadreeswarar Temple inside Cauvery, Erode
• Emane

Delhi, city and national capital, and union territory, north-central India. The city of Delhi actually consists of two components: Old Delhi, in the north, the historic city; and New Delhi, in the south, since 1947 the capital of India, built in the first part of the 20th century as the capital of British India.

New Delhi, India: Presidential House (Rashtrapati Bhavan)

The Presidential House (Rashtrapati Bhavan), formerly the Viceroy's House, New Delhi, India, designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens, constructed 1913–30.(more)

One of the country’s largest urban agglomerations, Delhi sits astride (but primarily on the west bank of) the Yamuna River, a tributary of the Ganges (Ganga) River, about 100 miles (160 km) south of the Himalayas. The national capital territory embraces Old and New Delhi and the surrounding metropolitan region, as well as adjacent rural areas. To the east the territory is bounded by the state of Uttar Pradesh, and to the north, west, and south it is bounded by the state of Haryana.

Delhi is of great historical significance as an important commercial, transport, and cultural hub, as well as the political centre of India. According to legend, the city was named for Raja Dhilu, a king who reigned in the region in the 1st century BCE. The names by which the city has been known—including Delhi, Dehli, Dilli, and Dhilli, among others—likely are corruptions of his name. Area Old Delhi, 360 square miles (932 square km); national capital territory, 573 square miles (1,483 square km). Pop. Old Delhi, (2001) 12,260,000; national capital territory, (2001) 13,850,507; Old Delhi, (2011) 11,007,835; national capital territory, (2011) 16,753,235.

Landscape

City site

Delhi: Bara Gumbad

Bara Gumbad mosque in Lod? Gardens, Delhi.

Delhi has been the centre of a succession of mighty empires and powerful kingdoms. Numerous ruins scattered throughout the territory offer a constant reminder of the area’s history. Popular lore holds that the city changed its locality a total of seven times between 3000 BCE and the 17th century CE, although some authorities, who take smaller towns and strongholds into account, claim it changed its site as many as 15 times. All the earlier locations of Delhi fall within a triangular area of about 70 square miles (180 square km), commonly called the Delhi Triangle. Two sides of the triangle are articulated by the rocky hills of the Aravalli Range—one to the south of the city, the other on its western edge, where it is known as the Delhi Ridge. The third side of the triangle is formed by the shifting channel of the Yamuna River. Between the river and the hills lie broad alluvial plains; the elevation of the territory ranges from about 700 to 1,000 feet (200 to 300 metres).

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The ridges and hillsides of the national capital territory abound in thorny trees, such as acacias, as well as seasonal herbaceous species. The sissoo (shisham; Dalbergia sissoo) tree, which yields a dark brown and durable timber, is commonly found in the plains. Riverine vegetation, consisting of weeds and grass, occurs on the banks of the Yamuna. New Delhi is known for its flowering shade trees, such as the neem (Azadirachta indica; a drought-resistant tree with a pale yellow fruit), jaman (Syzygium cumini; a tree with an edible grapelike fruit), mango, pipal (Ficus religiosa; a fig tree), and sissoo. It also is known for its flowering plants, which include a large number of multicoloured seasonals: chrysanthemums, phlox, violas, and verbenas.

Brahman bull

Brahman bull pulling a cart, New Delhi, India.

The animal life of the national capital territory, like its plant life, is quite diverse. Among carnivorous animals are leopards, hyenas, foxes, wolves, and jackals, which inhabit the ravine lands and hilly ridges. Wild boars are sometimes spotted along the banks of the Yamuna. Monkeys are found in the city, especially around some of the temples and historical ruins. Birdlife is profuse; year-round species include pigeons, sparrows, kites, parrots, partridges, bush quail, and, on the ridges, peafowl. The lakes around the city attract seasonal species. Fish are plentiful in the Yamuna, and an occasional crocodile also may be found there.

Climate

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The climate of Delhi is characterized by extreme dryness, with intensely hot summers. It is associated with a general prevalence of continental air, which moves in from the west or northwest, except during the season of the monsoon, when an easterly to southeasterly influx of oceanic air brings rain and increased humidity. The summer season lasts from mid-March to the end of June, with maximum temperatures typically reaching about 100 °F (about 37 °C) and minimum temperatures falling into the high 70s F (about 25 °C); it is characterized by frequent thunderstorms and squalls, especially in April and May. The monsoon season normally begins in July and continues until the end of September. It is during these months that Delhi receives the bulk of its rainfall—roughly 23 inches (600 mm), or nearly three-fourths of the annual average. October and November constitute a transition period from monsoon to winter conditions. The dry winter season extends from late November to mid-March. The coldest month is January, with high temperatures in the low 70s F (about 21 °C) and low temperatures in the mid-40s F (about 7 °C).

City layout

New Delhi: arch

All India War Memorial arch (India Gate), New Delhi, India.

The city plan of Delhi is a mixture of old and new road patterns. The street network of Old Delhi reflects the defense needs of an earlier era, with a few transverse streets leading from one major gate to another. Occasionally a street from a subsidiary gate leads directly to the main axes, but most Old Delhi streets tend to be irregular in direction, length, and width. Narrow and winding paths, culs-de-sac, alleys, and byways form an intricate matrix that renders much of Old Delhi accessible only to pedestrian traffic. Conversely, the Civil Lines (residential areas originally built by the British for senior officers) in the north and New Delhi in the south embody an element of relative openness, characterized by green grass, trees, and a sense of order.

When the decision was made in 1911 to transfer the capital of British India from Calcutta (now Kolkata) to Delhi, a planning committee was formed, and a site 3 miles (5 km) south of the existing city of Delhi, around Raisina Hill, was chosen for the new administrative centre. A well-drained, healthy area between the Delhi Ridge and the Yamuna River, it provided ample room for expansion. Raisina Hill, commanding a view of the entire area, stood about 50 feet (15 metres) above the plain, but the top 20 feet (6 metres) were blasted off to make a level plateau for the major government buildings and to fill in depressions. With this low acropolis as the focus, the plan for New Delhi was laid out.

New Delhi: Paharganj

Paharganj neighbourhood, central New Delhi, India.

New Delhi, India: Rashtrapati Bhavan

Rashtrapati Bhavan (Presidential House), New Delhi, India.

The New Delhi plan was characterized by wide straight avenues, with trees in double rows on either side, that connected various points of interest and provided vistas of the surrounding area. The most prominent feature of the plan, aside from its diagonal road pattern, was the Rajpath, a broad central avenue that in present-day New Delhi stretches westward from the National Stadium, through the All India War Memorial arch (popularly called the India Gate), to the Central Secretariat buildings and the Presidential House (Rashtrapati Bhavan). This is the main east-west axis; it divides New Delhi into two parts, with a large shopping and business district, Connaught Place, in the north and extensive residential areas in the south.

Land use

New Delhi: Central Secretariat building

Central Secretariat building, New Delhi, India.

The pattern of land use in Delhi was influenced considerably by the implementation (albeit partial) of the Delhi Development Authority’s 20-year (1962–81) master plan. Broadly, public and semipublic land use was concentrated in the Central Secretariat area of New Delhi and in the Old Secretariat area in the Civil Lines, with subsidiary centres developing in the Indraprastha Estate (an office complex) in the east and in Ramakrishnapuram (an office-cum-residence complex) in the south. A large number of small manufacturing establishments have entrenched themselves in almost every part of Old Delhi, but the main industrial areas have gravitated toward Najafgarh Road in the west and the large planned Okhla Industrial Estate in the south. Land for commercial use is found mainly in the Chandni Chowk and Khari Baoli areas, both in the north; in the Sadar Bazar of Old Delhi; in the Ajmal Khan Road area of Karol Bagh in western Delhi; around Connaught Place in New Delhi; and in the areas of Lajpat Nagar and Srojini Nagar in the south. A number of district and local shopping centres have developed in other localities.

Traditional regions

There is a clear distinction in Delhi between areas where local influences are foremost and areas where colonial and cosmopolitan aesthetics predominate. In Old Delhi, gates or doorways open onto one-, two-, or three-story residences and courtyards or onto katra (one-room tenements facing a courtyard or other enclosure that has access to the street only by a single opening or gate). The prevalence of courtyards has helped to cultivate a strong sense of mohalla (“neighbourhood”) in the area. Also typical of Old Delhi are urban village enclaves, such as Kotla Mubarakpur, where houses and streets retain their rural character. The Civil Lines area is characterized by old one-story bungalows inhabited by those in the upper-income bracket. In New Delhi, the government housing areas are grouped by income. Significant parts of the city are densely packed with substandard, often dilapidated housing, inhabited mostly by construction workers, sweepers, factory labourers, and other low-income groups.

People

In the demographic history of Delhi, a turning point was the year 1947, when thousands of Hindu and Sikh refugees from predominantly Muslim Pakistan entered the city in the wake of India’s independence. Since that time the population has grown steadily, with an ongoing heavy flow of immigrants, most arriving from other Indian states or from adjacent countries.

Immigrant (or other foreign) communities often are found in the newer housing developments. Chanakyapuri (more commonly known as the Diplomatic Enclave), for instance, is the site of many foreign embassies. Concentrations of specific ethnic communities have formed in such areas as Chittaranjan Park and Karol Bagh; the former is a predominantly Bengali subdivision and the latter largely a Punjabi one. Such areas have been diversifying since the late 20th century, however.

Sikhism: Gurdwara Bangla Sahib

The Gurdwara Bangla Sahib, a Sikh house of worship dedicated to the eighth Sikh Guru, Hari Krishen, in Delhi.(more)

The religious composition of Delhi’s population is also varied. The great majority of the residents are Hindu. Adherents of Islam constitute the largest minority, followed by smaller numbers of Sikhs, Jains, Christians, and Buddhists.

Economy of Delhi

Life Insurance Corporation of India

Life Insurance Corporation of India building in New Delhi.

The service sector is the most important part of Delhi’s economy, and it is the city’s largest employer. Manufacturing has remained significant, after a surge in the 1980s. Agriculture once contributed significantly to the economy of the national capital territory, but now it is of little importance.

spice market in Old Delhi, India

Vendor in spice market, Old Delhi, India.

The bulk of Delhi’s working population is engaged in trade, finance, public administration, professional services, and various community, personal, and social services. Indeed, for many centuries Old Delhi has been a dominant trading and commercial centre in northern India. Since the 1990s New Delhi has emerged as an important node in the international corporate and financial network.

Manufacturing

Mechanized industry arrived in Delhi early in the 20th century and focused on cotton ginning, spinning, and weaving; flour grinding and packaging; and sugarcane and oil pressing. More recently, electronics and engineering goods, automobile parts, precision instruments, machinery, and electrical appliances have moved to the centre of the city’s manufacturing activities, although the production of apparel, sports-related products, and leather goods is also important.

Delhi long has been renowned for its handmade artistic works, such as ivory carvings and paintings, engravings, sculpture of various sorts, miniature paintings, jewelry, gold and silver brocades and embroidery, and metalwork. Such items remain a small but significant segment of Delhi’s manufacturing sector.

Finance and other services

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Delhi’s position as the national capital and as a major industrial city has supported its function as a banking, wholesale-trade, and distribution centre. The city is the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and of the regional offices of the State Bank of India and other banking institutions. Many foreign banks offering both retail and corporate services also have branches in the city. Delhi is a divisional headquarters for the insurance business and is the home of the Delhi Stock Exchange. The city has long acted as a major distribution centre for much of northern India, with a large proportion of the trade conducted from within the Old Delhi area, where most of the markets are concentrated. In addition to its financial and trade services, Delhi hosts a thriving tourism industry, which has grown rapidly since the late 20th century.

Transportation

Delhi: subway

Station of the subway system in Delhi, India.

The geographic position of Delhi on the great plain of India, where the Deccan plateau and the Thar Desert approach the Himalayas to produce a narrow corridor, ensures that all land routes from northwestern India to the eastern plain must pass through it, thus making it a pivotal centre in the subcontinent’s transportation network. A number of national highways converge on Delhi, and several railway lines also meet there, linking the city with all parts of the country. Delhi is an important air terminus in northern India for both international and domestic services. Indira Gandhi International Airport, located in the southwestern part of the city, handles international flights. One of its terminals, which was once known as the Palam Airport, lies about 2 miles (3 km) from the international facility and is a hub of the domestic airway system.

auto rickshaw

Auto rickshaws, New Delhi, India.

The traffic-circulation pattern of Delhi was originally designed for a smaller population, and, with Delhi’s explosive growth, the system quickly became overburdened. Improvements to the road system—such as adding overpasses and underpasses and widening major thoroughfares—have alleviated the worst traffic congestion, but the sheer volume of traffic—which includes slow-moving vehicles such as bullock carts, pedicabs, and bicycles—makes road travel in Delhi difficult. Although they are improving, mass-transportation facilities remain inadequate, with the principal means of public transport consisting of an ever-increasing fleet of buses. Long-distance commuting within the city is facilitated by chartered buses during rush hours, as well as by a rapid transit system, the first phase of which was completed in November 2006. Several bridges built in the late 20th and early 21st centuries have helped to ease the flow of traffic over the Yamuna River.

Administration and society

Government

New Delhi: Parliament House

Parliament House, New Delhi, India.

Delhi was a British province headed by a chief commissioner until 1947, when India attained its independence on August 15, celebrated annually as the country’s Independence Day. It became a centrally administered state in 1952, but in 1956 its status was changed to that of a union territory under the central government. A unified corporation for both urban and rural areas was established in 1958, and Delhi was designated the national capital territory in 1991. A lieutenant governor, appointed by the president of India, is the chief administrator of the national capital territory; he is assisted by a chief minister, who also is appointed.

New Delhi, India: Central Secretariat building

Central Secretariat building, New Delhi, India.

Nested in different layers of administrative and planning regions, Delhi consists of both the urban agglomeration and more than 200 villages distributed mostly across the Delhi and Mehrauli tehsils (subdistricts) of the territory. At the macro level, Delhi is part of the National Capital Region (NCR), a planning region carved out in 1971 by the Town and Country Planning Organisation to guide future growth around Delhi. The NCR comprises not only Delhi but also the bordering tehsils in the states of Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan.

At the micro level is the national capital territory itself, which consists of three administrative bodies known locally as statutory towns—the Municipal Corporation of Delhi (MCD), the New Delhi Municipal Council (NDMC), and the Cantonment Board—that are in some ways distinguished by function and in other ways by the geographic area over which they have authority. The MCD, which is an elected body, performs municipal and discretionary welfare functions, a foremost focus of which has been the elimination of substandard housing (either through destruction or improvement). The NDMC, which is an appointed body, is essentially responsible for New Delhi and its adjoining areas. The Cantonment Board consists of both elected members and appointed ex officio members; among its principal responsibilities are water and public-utilities management, public health and sanitation, birth and death registration, and elementary education.

Municipal services

Delhi’s water and electricity are provided by various public and private companies. The Delhi Jal Board distributes treated drinkable water. Electricity is supplied largely by local coal-burning thermal stations, although several gas-fired plants, built in the national capital territory in the early 21st century, also generate a significant amount of power. A portion of Delhi’s energy is tapped from sources outside the national capital territory.

The jurisdiction of the Delhi Fire Service extends over both the urban and rural areas of the national capital territory. The Delhi Police force is headed by a commissioner who oversees the operation of several districts, each of which is administered by a superintendent of police. Scattered across these districts are well over 100 police stations, which are responsible for regular patrol in their respective areas.

Health

Overall health standards in Delhi exceed the national average, but the accessibility of health care facilities varies widely. Much of the city’s health care is provided by a large number of allopathic and homeopathic clinics, as well as by dispensaries of various indigenous medical treatments (most of which are based on herbs and minerals). Hospitals in Delhi are numerous; many of the larger facilities are administered by the national government or by the national capital territory.

Education

The growth of the school system in the national capital territory generally has kept pace with the expansion of the city’s population. Primary-level education is nearly universal, and a large proportion of students also attend secondary school. The national boards for secondary education are located in Delhi.

There are many institutions of higher education in the national capital territory, the most prominent of which include the Jamia Millia Islamia (1920); the University of Delhi (1922), which has many affiliated colleges and research institutions; and Jawaharlal Nehru University (1969). Among the major colleges for professional and other studies are the All India Institute of Medical Sciences (1956), the National School of Drama (1959), the Indian Institute of Technology (1959), and the Indian Institute of Mass Communications (1965). One of the largest distance-learning universities in India, Indira Gandhi National Open University (1985), is also located in Delhi. In addition to these major institutions, an array of vocational schools offer a wide variety of courses.

Cultural life

Delhi’s cultural life exhibits a unique blend of the traditional and cosmopolitan styles. The city is dotted with numerous museums, historic forts and monuments, libraries, auditoriums, botanical gardens, and places of worship. Complementing such traditional institutions are the ever-changing urban commercial and leisure centres, with their privately held contemporary art galleries, cinema multiplexes, bowling alleys and other sports venues, and restaurants serving a variety of Indian and international cuisines.

Also reflecting Delhi’s cultural and stylistic diversity are its numerous fairs and festivals. These include an annual film festival as well as many sorts of trade and book fairs. The various religious groups in Delhi contribute to an ongoing succession of religious festivals and celebrations.

Architecture

Delhi: Qu?b M?n?r

Qu?b M?n?r, Delhi, India.

A varied history has left behind a rich architectural heritage in Delhi. The oldest buildings in the city belong to the early Muslim period; they are not homogenous in construction or in ornamentation, however. The influence of Hindu Rajput craftsmen is visible in the naturalistic motifs, the serpentine tendrils, and even the curves of the alphabets of Qur??nic inscriptions. Some artists, poets, and architects from Central Asia brought with them the Seljuq (Turkish) tradition of architecture, characterized by a lotus-bud fringe on the underside of arches, ornamental reliefs, and bricks laid endwise and lengthwise in alternating courses in the masonry face.

Delhi: Qu?b M?n?r

Detail of the Qu?b M?n?r, Old Delhi, India.

Delhi: Qu?b M?n?r

Qu?b M?n?r, a minaret in Delhi; construction started in 1199 by Qu?b al-D?n Aibak and was completed by his successor, Iltutmish.(more)

Delhi: Qu?b M?n?r

Ruins of the Qu?b M?n?r, a mosque and minaret in Delhi, built by Qu?b al-D?n Aibak and his successor, Iltutmish.(more)

By the time of the Khalj?s (1290–1320), a specific method and idiom, called the Pashtun style, had been established in Islamic architecture. Among the typical features of this style are red sandstone surfaces with white marble inlays, arches in the shape of a pointed horseshoe, windows fitted with perforated screens, and intricate and abundant decoration with arabesques and inspirational texts. Examples of early Pashtun architecture in Delhi include the Quwat-ul-Islam mosque; the Qu?b M?n?r, which, with its surrounding monuments, has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site; the tomb of Iltutmish; and the Ala?i Gate. Later Pashtun styles are represented by the tombs of the Sayyid (1414–51) and Lod? kings (1451–1526); these tombs exhibit either a low octagonal shape or a higher square edifice, the facade of which is broken by a horizontal decorative band and a series of panels that suggest a much larger structure.

Delhi: tomb of Hum?y?n

The tomb of Hum?y?n, Delhi, India, c. 1564 CE.

The first important piece of Mughal architecture in Delhi was Hum?y?n’s tomb, which was the precursor of the Taj Mahal (in Agra). It introduced high arches and double domes to Indian architecture. Some of the finest representatives of later Mughal architecture are found within the Red Fort (Lal Qila). The fort’s massive red sandstone walls, which stand 75 feet (23 metres) high, enclose a complex of palaces and entertainment halls, projecting balconies, baths and indoor canals, and geometrical gardens, as well as an ornate mosque. Among the most famous structures of the complex are the Hall of Public Audience (Diwan-i-Am), which has 60 red sandstone pillars supporting a flat roof, and the smaller Hall of Private Audience (Diwan-i-Khas), with a pavilion of white marble. The Jama Masjid is a fine example of a true Mughal mosque, in part because it has minarets, where its precursors did not. Both Hum?y?n’s tomb and the Red Fort complex are UNESCO World Heritage sites.

stepwell

Gandhak ki Baoli, Delhi, India.

stepwell

Agrasen ki Baoli, Delhi, India.

Stepwells (vans, or baolis) also showcase Delhi’s rich architectural heritage. The subterranean edifices—common throughout India as water sources for drinking, washing, bathing, and irrigation and as cool sanctuaries for caravans, pilgrims and travelers—were commissioned by royal, wealthy, or powerful patrons. The structures were complex engineering feats and distinctive examples of both Hindu and Islamic architectural styles. They were excavated several stories underground in order to access fluctuating water tables. Although each stepwell varies stylistically, all of them incorporated flights of stairs leading from the surface to the water. Many also functioned as inverted temples, featuring column-supported shade pavilions and elaborate stone carvings. Two stepwell examples in Delhi are Agrasen ki Baoli and Gandhak ki Baoli.

New Delhi: Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple

Swaminarayan Akshardham Temple (2005), New Delhi, India.

The architectural styles of the British period combined British colonial and Mughal elements. Structures ranged from the grand—as represented by the Presidential House (Rashtrapati Bhavan) and the Parliament and Secretariat buildings—to the utilitarian, as seen in the bungalows and institutional buildings. Since independence India has aimed to develop its own architectural language in a synthesis between Western and local styles. In Delhi examples of such architecture can be seen in the Supreme Court building, the Vigyan Bhavan (a conference centre), the Crafts Museum, offices of the various ministries, and the institutional buildings near Connaught Place. Since the late 20th century, a number of Indian and foreign architects have added buildings to the city’s landscape that may be considered postmodern (mixing many elements of diverse origin) in style. Notable among these are the National Institute of Immunology, the headquarters of the Life Insurance Corporation of India, the building of the Embassy of Belgium, and the Indian Bah??? Temple.

Cultural institutions

National Museum

National Museum, New Delhi.

Delhi is home to a number of important museums and busy cultural centres. The National Museum of India, the National Gallery of Modern Arts, and the Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts are all dedicated to the preservation, documentation, and dissemination of the country’s artistic heritage. The Crafts Museum showcases Indian carving, metalwork, painting, and other crafts; the institution regularly hosts events at which local craftspeople demonstrate their art and sell their wares. The Siri Fort Auditorium is an important centre for major cultural events. The Pragati Maidan, a world-class trade and cultural centre, is another prominent landmark where events and exhibitions of international scale are held throughout the year. Dilli Haat is a popular bazaar that offers a diverse range of handicrafts and cuisines from the various states.

Delhi, India: Raj Ghat

Raj Ghat, a memorial to Mohandas (Mahatma) Gandhi, Delhi, India.

Aside from its museums, auditoriums, and other cultural centres, Delhi is a city of gardens and fountains, among the most notable of which are the Roshan Ara Gardens and the meticulously planned Mughal Gardens. Many park and garden areas have grown up around historical monuments, such as the Lod? Gardens (around the Lod? Tombs) and the Firoz Shah Kotla Grounds (around Ashoka’s Pillar). Along the Yamuna riverfront, memorials set in flowering gardens have been built for various 20th-century national leaders. Among these are Raj Ghat (honouring Mahatma Gandhi), Shanti Vana (honouring Jawaharlal Nehru), and Vijay Ghat (honouring Lal Bahadur Shastri).

Sports and recreation

The national capital territory has well-developed sporting facilities, including a number of stadiums that were built when Delhi hosted the Asian Games in 1982. Several sports complexes are located within the city, while world-class golf courses are situated on its periphery. Among the major outdoor natural recreation areas are the Delhi Ridge and the Yamuna riverfront.

Media and publishing

Delhi is an important centre for publishing, the press, and other mass communications. Doordarshan, the country’s national television network, and All India Radio are both headquartered there. Major daily newspapers issued from Delhi include The Times of India and the Hindustan Times.

History of Delhi

The earliest reference to a settlement in the Delhi area is found in the Mahabharata, an epic narrative about two groups of warring cousins, the Pandavas and the Kauravas, both descendants of the prince Bharata. According to the narrative, a city called Indraprastha (“City of the God Indra”), built about 1400 BCE, was the capital of the Pandavas. Although nothing remains of Indraprastha, legend holds it to have been a thriving city. The first reference to the place-name Delhi seems to have been made in the 1st century BCE, when Raja Dhilu built a city near the site of the future Qu?b M?n?r tower (in present-day southwestern Delhi) and named it for himself.

The next notable city to emerge in the area now known as the Delhi Triangle was Anangpur (Anandpur), established as a royal resort in about 1020 CE by Anangapala of the Tomara dynasty. Anangapala later moved Anangpur some 6 miles (10 km) westward to a walled citadel called Lal Kot. The Tomara kings occupied Lal Kot for about a century. In 1164 Prithviraj III (Rai Pithora) extended the citadel by building massive ramparts around it; the city then became known as Qila Rai Pithora. In the late 12th century Prithviraj III was defeated, and the city passed into Muslim hands. Qu?b al-D?n Aybak, builder of the famous tower Qu?b M?n?r (completed in the early 13th century), made Lal Kot the seat of his empire.

The Khalj? dynasty came to power in the Delhi area in the last decade of the 13th century. During the reign of the Khalj?s, the suburbs were ravaged by Mongol plunderers. As a defense against subsequent attacks by the Mongols, ?Al?? al-D?n Khalj? (reigned 1296–1316) built a new circular fortified city at Siri, a short distance northeast of the Qu?b M?n?r, that was designated as the Khalj? capital. Siri was the first completely new city to be built by the Muslim conquerors in India.

Delhi: tomb and palace of F?r?z Shah

Tomb and palace of F?r?z Shah, Delhi, India, c. 1380 CE.

The region passed into the hands of the Tughluq dynasty in 1321. A new capital was built by Ghiy?th al-D?n Tughluq (1320–25) at Tughlakabad, but it had to be abandoned in favour of the old site near the Qu?b M?n?r because of a scarcity of water. Ghiy?th’s successor, Mu?ammad ibn Tughluq, extended the city farther northeast and built new fortifications around it. He then suddenly moved the capital to Deogiri (which he renamed Daulatabad), in the Deccan plateau to the south, in order to supervise territories that he had recently annexed there. Mu?ammad ibn Tughluq’s successor, F?r?z Shah Tughluq, abandoned the Daulatabad site and in 1354 moved his capital farther north, near the ancient site of Indraprastha. The capital he founded, Firuzabad, was situated in what is now the Firoz Shah Kotla area of contemporary Delhi.

After the invasion and sack of the Delhi area by Timur (Tamerlane) at the end of the 14th century, the Sayyid (c. 1414–51) and the Lod? (1451–1526) dynasties, which followed the Tughluqs, confined themselves within the precincts of Firuzabad. B?bur, the first Mughal ruler, arrived in 1526 and made his base at Agra to the southeast (in what is now the state of Uttar Pradesh). His son Hum?y?n ascended the throne in 1530 and in 1533 founded a new city, Din Panah, on the bank of the Yamuna River. Sh?r Shah, who overthrew Hum?y?n in 1540, razed Din Panah to the ground and built his new capital, the Sher Shahi, now known as Purana Qila fort, in southeastern Delhi.

Red Fort

Red Fort, designated a UNESCO World Heritage site in 2007, Old Delhi, India.(more)

The next two Mughal emperors, Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) and Jah?ng?r (reigned 1605–27), preferred to rule India from Agra. In 1639, however, Shah Jah?n, Akbar’s grandson, instructed his engineers, architects, and astrologers to choose a location with a mild climate somewhere between Agra and Lahore (now in Pakistan). The choice was on the western bank of the Yamuna, just north of Purana Qila. Shah Jah?n started the construction of the new capital, focusing on his fort, Urdu-i-Mualla, today called Lal Qila, or the Red Fort. The structure was completed in eight years, and on April 19, 1648, Shah Jah?n entered his fort and his new capital, Shajahanabad, from its riverfront gate. Shahjahanabad today is Old Delhi. The greater part of Old Delhi is still confined within the space of Shah Jah?n’s walls, and several gates built during his rule—the Kashmiri Gate, the Delhi Gate, the Turkman Gate, and the Ajmeri Gate—still stand.

With the fall of the Mughal Empire during the mid-18th century, Delhi faced raids by the Marathas (a people of peninsular India), invasion by N?dir Shah of Persia, and a brief spell of Maratha rule before the British arrived in 1803. Under British rule the city flourished—except during the Indian Mutiny in 1857, when the mutineers seized the city for several months, after which British power was restored and Mughal rule ended. In 1911 the British determined to shift the capital of India from Calcutta (Kolkata) to Delhi, and a three-member committee was formed to plan the construction of the new administrative centre. The key architect on the committee was Sir Edwin Lutyens; it was he who gave shape to the city. The British moved to the partially built New Delhi in 1912, and construction was completed in 1931.

Vaddiparti Lova Surya Prakasa RaoK.V. SundaramVernon Ram

Since India’s independence in 1947, Delhi has become a major metropolitan area; it has spread north and south along the Yamuna River, spilled onto the river’s east bank, stretched over the Delhi Ridge to the west, and extended beyond the boundaries of the national capital territory into adjacent states. Initially, the city’s growth was attributable to the enormous influx of Hindu refugees from Pakistan following its partition from India (also in 1947). Since the early 1950s, however, Delhi has absorbed immigrants from throughout India at an astounding rate. New Delhi, once adjacent to Delhi, is now part of the larger city, as are the seats (or their remains) of the former empires. Between ancient mausoleums and forts have sprouted high-rise towers, commercial complexes, and other features of the contemporary city.

This rapid development has not been without cost. In a pattern familiar to many postcolonial megalopolises, the deluge of job-seeking immigrants has placed a colossal strain on the city’s infrastructure and on the ingenuity of city planners to provide sufficient electricity, sanitation, and clean water for the population. Especially problematic—in a city in which the population more than doubled in the final two decades of the 20th century—has been the large number of residents who have continued to live in substandard makeshift urban dwellings called jhuggi-jhompri. Lacking the most basic services, such housing has ultimately burdened city planners and administrators with the difficult task of integrating a tremendous population of jhuggi-jhompri residents into a city whose infrastructure barely accommodates already-existing households.

Also since the mid-20th century, traffic congestion in Delhi has become a serious impediment to mobility and, ultimately, to the city’s development. This situation has contributed greatly to Delhi’s already hazardous level of air pollution. The government has undertaken a number of antipollution measures since the 1980s, but, because of poor enforcement, those measures have failed to prevent the concentration of pollutants from soaring.

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